Mummies essays

Mummies essays The Egyptians believed in life after death, or afterlife. They also believed the sprit would need to come back to it's body to rest, so they worked hard to preserve it. One famous Egyptian story tells about Osiris, who once ruled Egypt. He was supposed to have been murdered by his jealous brother, Set. After having many adventures, Isis, the wife of Osiris managed to restore him to life. The Egyptians were, in their afterlife, supposed to "live" in a land ruled by Osiris. Their next life would be similar to their present one, except free from all troubles and more comfortable. They still would need supplies for their afterlife, so they would take everything they need and store it in jars. Then they would cast a spell over the jars so their contents would last forever. They would also take papyrus scrolls and write formulas on them, to overcome all obstacles in their future life. Little servant statues were to serve as servants. They had one servant statue for each day of the year, and one for each special job that may need to be done in their future life. In order so the sprits would recognize their body, the Egyptians would mummify it. Mummify means treat a body with preservatives so it will not decay. First the Egyptians would take all the organs out and put them in canopic jars. Canopic jars are jars with lids in the form the head of an animal, god, or the person themselves. They would throw away the brain because they believed the heart did all the thinking. They would leave the heart in the body. Then they would dry the body and organs in natron, a mixture of salt and baking soda. Earlier in history they would have dried the body in the sun. Next they would pack the body in linen so it would regain its original shape. It would then be soaked in scented oils and washed in wine and spices. Then they would start by wrapping each finger and toe individually. Then they would wrap each arm ...

The long run effect of the Eurozone crisis in Germany and Greece

The long run effect of the Eurozone crisis in Germany and Greece Introduction The European financial crisis, which is mostly referred to as the Euro crisis, is an economic term that depicts the economic status of most European countries. The Eurozone crisis started in the year 2009 when most countries in Europe exceeded their spending limits and embarked on borrowing mostly from the European Central Bank (ECB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The long run effect of the Eurozone crisis in Germany and Greece specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The most countries affected by the Europe crisis were members of the EU including France, Germany, Italy, and Greece among others. The crisis followed after the introduction of the Euro currency to be used as a common trading currency among members of the European Union that excluded countries like the Great Britain. The Euro crisis was instigated by reducing the bank lending rate meant to steer economic growth, but most of the countries could not repay these loans. The countries defaulted to repay back the loans. Thus, the European Central Bank was left to struggle to keep the economy of Europe in the worst case scenario since 1998 when the global crisis emerged (Arestis 2012). The existence of the European Union was threatened by this crisis as the banking lending rates became very low. This could stall economic growth thereby instigating loss of jobs in Europe when companies are forced to limit their spending just to keep afloat. Stringent measures had to be thought out quickly as it required the intervention of economic giants like the US and Germany. This was meant to help avert the crisis that would lead to another global financial crisis. Countries like Greece were on the verge of defaulting to repay some of the loans lend out by the ECB and IMF. Thus, the intervention of Germany to help in stimulating the economy of Greece to help it repay the loan was crucial (OECD Economic Surveys: Greece 2011, 2011). The Solow growth model The Solow growth model is an economic graph that examines economic growth by checking how factors like production, population and capital affect the economy. Factors of production like capital and labour affect production in terms of volume and quality. Consumption of goods forms a part of the equation. In this case, demand and supply forces determine the cost of production. The Solow model is represented by the following equation. Y = c + I, where y represents the production function in an economy, c represents consumption, whereas the I represent investments. The Solow model can be represented by the graph below.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More From the graph, it is clear that the higher the economy’s output, the greater the amount of investment. In the case of Greece, the government should increase the level of national output to stabilize the economy. In turn, this will increase the level of investment and thus leading to increased production. A country’s level of output is determined by the input factors. These are factors present in the country where capital and labour resources need to be well utilized to increase the level of output. The Solow growth model can indicate that German has put in place good production resources. Thus, the economy of the country is stabilizing while else the economy of Greece seems to stagnate. A country’s growth is determined by its production and how the production is integrated into its input such as labour and capital. The population in a country provides manpower that helps the industries to operate efficiently. The capital is used to set up a new production line that will help the country to experience growth. The Eurozone Crisis German is known to have a stable economy where any decline in the lending rates could affect the e conomy of the country. The government of Germany has set good and solid financial policies that shield the country’s economy from major global financial crisis. However, the Eurozone crisis happened right in the middle of the country’s major trade partners and thus the value of export in the country could be reduced. Thus, to the emergence of a single currency to be used by members of the European Union the effect of the Eurozone crisis would affect adversely on the members of this union. The Eurozone crisis would spell out a weak Euro currency, which would have a long term effect on the economy of Europe. The economy would reverse due to closure of businesses and companies as they try to cut down on the spending through employee lay off and reduced sale value (Great Britain 2012).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The long run effect of the Eurozone crisis in Germany and Greece specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A strong currency would spell out economic growth where countries would experience an economic boom. Thus, the countries would increase the level of their export, and the government would collect high revenue. In the short run, the bailing out of most of the countries would spell out a relief to the economy of Europe where the central bank would be required to print more money to help in repaying some of these loans. However, in the long run, the inflation in Europe would sky rocket registering double digits. This will finally affect the global economy leading to adverse effects on the running of major governments and businesses. The economy of Greece was on the verge of collapse, and as a result of the Eurozone crisis, the country’s economy was in huge trouble. This would affect other countries in Europe (Petrakis 2011). Thus, proper policies from countries like Italy and Spain were to be implemented to help avert the situation in Greece. Greece would have resulted t o more borrowing and accumulate the international debt further and thus slow down their economic growth or even resort to the printing of money, and this would raise the rate of inflation in the country (Siebert 2005). The Eurozone crisis would spell out a sovereign financial crisis to major economies in Europe. Here, they would lose investors, and the Euro currency would fall in value affecting most export from Europe. This will also increase the governments spending as they try to avert the crisis. The value of the Euro would fall amid fears from major world currencies like the US dollar and the sterling pound (Lynn 2011). Thus, the effect of the Eurozone crisis would not only affect Greece and Germany, but other countries in the world would also be affected negatively. The economy of most European countries sustains many countries, especially in Africa and Asia. These are countries that rely a lot on the trading of the Euro and the financial capability of the European Central Ban k to help in money lending and foreign exchange rates to stabilize. The effects of the Eurozone crisis are more profound on the running of the economy of countries like Germany and Greece. The value of the Euro was mostly set out to match the value of the Deutschmark, which was the most stable currency in Europe. Thus, the economy of Germany mostly depends on the value of the Euro (Raussello 2012). The German central bank also referred to as the Bundesbank acted as preservation of the Euro. The bank sought to clear the Eurozone crisis through the economic stimulus program.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This was designed to help most European countries to steer to better economic growth and preserve the value of the Euro. The Euro is highly recognized as a strong trading currency due to its capability and power to trade in different countries around Europe. Thus, any fall in the global market would adversely affect the Euro plus other major currencies in the world (Rogers 2012). The demand of the Euro would reduce if its value declined and this would affect the international trade in Europe that relies mostly on the export of industrial goods and services. Third party governments had to intervene and help in financing these loans. This was due to the effect that some governments could not repay or finance some of the debt they owed to the major world financial institution. Some of the countries that were unable to finance their debts include Greece. In the case of Greece, there was the intervention from countries like German (Fiorentini Montani 2012). The government of German was willing to bail out some of these governments. This was to be taken as a policy to address the crisis, which would have an adverse effect on the economy of many European countries in the long run. Sluggish economic growth in many European countries would even shake stable economies like Germany and Spain. Thus, as a caution to shield their economy from the crisis, the government of these countries resolved to help avert the crisis effects. This was especially the case in other countries like Greece, which were not in a position to finance its foreign debt (Fiorentini Montani 2012). The Eurozone crisis has had adverse effects on the economy of Germany and Greece and not to mention the effect it has had on the economy of Europe and the world. The loss of investors as a result of weak Euro will affect the GDP of most European countries. The effect of the Eurozone crisis in Greece would be adverse and considerably profound due to its inability to finance some of its foreign debts. In t his case, the government would be forced to borrow significantly to repay a part of this loan. The financial position of the country would be on the decline as many jobs would be lost as a result of the financial meltdown. The government would resort to either print extra money or borrow from other sources. In turn, this would increase the money supply within the economy thus raising the level of inflation. Inflation in the country would spell a low bargaining power of the goods and services in the country. International trade would be adversely affected as the countrys goods would fetch low prices on the market due to low currency value in the country (Hardach 1980). The country’s import would cost the country more money as compared to a situation with a strong currency. The country would be spending more than its capacity for the same goods and services. The level of unemployment would increase as most companies would be involved in labour restructuring as a result of cutti ng costs in the country. The government should give relief to the laid off workers when the level of unemployment increases. In this case, the revenue collected from the tax would also decline resulting in low economic growth (Farnsworth Irving 2011). The long run effect of the Eurozone crisis on the economy of German would be a reduced economic growth. In this case, considerable funds would be directed to countries like Greece, which have defaulted in paying their foreign debt. The country’s government would resort to issuing of tax relief to some of its companies that may be affected by the low value of the Euro. The low value of the Euro would affect local industries that produce goods and services for export. Here, their sales would decline due to low currency value thus leading to the lay off some of the workers as a cost cutting mechanism in order to remain in business (Habermas Cronin 2012). The countrys lending rate would go down. This will adversely affect the econ omic growth in the long run as the government tries to revive some of the companies to enhance borrowing in order to stay in business. The government would resort to privatization of some of its assets as it tries to offset some of the deficits it may incur in the process. The country had to budget for over 110 billion Euros to bail out Greece and other countries that had a problem in meeting up the loan repayment. Such financial budgets can affect both the country that is bailing out, and the beneficiary as more stringent measures could be issued to avert the whole situation (Arestis Sawyer 2012). There were various solutions to the Eurozone crisis where major economies in Europe like German, Spain and Italy resolved to help countries like Greece that had problems in repaying their foreign debts in time. The country had to privatize most of its assets as a means of payment for the bail out. This would also help restore the country’s economy, which was on the verge of collap se (Lipschitz McDonald 1990). This will also stimulate economic growth within the next few years. The country had to implement a complete restructuring of its financial reforms so as to stimulate competitiveness and economic growth. The reforms would help in steering the economy to greater heights and project government initiated investment into the economy. The economy could be improved by issuing government bonds to raise more funds and service the loan without having much effect on the value of the Euro. The bail out would help Greece to reduce a part of its foreign debt by over a half. This would help the country to increase its GDP through increased investment and strengthening of the countrys economic growth rate to a great extent (Baldwin, Gros Laeven, 2010). Conclusion The Euro crisis is said to have emanated from various countries in Europe. These are countries that had defaulted in paying their public debt. This led to a fall in value of the Euro currency. Countries like German, which have had strong and stable economic growth characterized by strong, financial capability, resolved to bail out some of these countries that had un-serviced foreign debt accumulating to millions of dollars. These defaulting countries included Greece that had a foreign debt amounting to more than 110 billion Euros. Most industries in the country were on the verge of collapse and thus required an economic stimulus package to help revive the economy back again. The long term effects of the crisis are still being experienced in these countries as they try to revive the value of the Euro for competitive trading. Reference List Arestis, P Sawyer, MC 2012, The Euro crisis, Palgrave Macmillan, Houndmills, Basingstoke Hampshire. Arestis, P 2012. The Euro crisis, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. Baldwin, RE, Gros, D Laeven, L 2010, Completing the Eurozone rescue: what more needs to be done? Centre for Economic Policy Research, London, Farnsworth, K Irving, Z 2011, Social poli cy in challenging times: economic crisis and welfare systems, Policy, Bristol. Fiorentini, R Montani, G 2012. The new global political economy: from crisis to supranational integration, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, Glos, UK. Great Britain 2012, Treaty on Stability, Coordination and Governance: impact on the eurozone and the rule of law: sixty-second report of session 2010-12. Vol. 1, Report, together with formal minutes, oral and written evidence, Stationery Office, London. Habermas, J Cronin, C 2012. The crisis of the European Union: a response, Polity, Cambridge, UK. Hardach, K 1980, The political economy of Germany in the twentieth century, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley. Lipschitz, L McDonald, D 1990, German unification: economic issues, International Monetary Fund, Washington, D.C. Lynn, M 2011. Bust: Greece, the Euro, and the Sovereign Debt Crisis, Hoboken, Bloomberg Press, N.J. OECD Economic Surveys: Greece 2011 2011, OECD, Paris. Petrakis, P 2011. The Greek Economy Afte r the Crisis: Challenges and Responses, Springer Berlin, Berlin. Raussello, F 2012, The Eurozone experience: monetary integration in the absence of a European government, F. Angeli, Milano. Rogers, C 2012, The IMF and European economies: crisis and conditionality, Palgrave Macmillan, Houndmills Basingstoke. Siebert, H 2005, The German economy beyond the social market. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton.

Evolution of the World Bank Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Evolution of the World Bank - Case Study Example The World Bank is a group of five closely associated international organizations responsible for providing finance and advice to countries for the purposes of economic development and eliminating poverty. Its five agencies are: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD); International Finance Corporation (IFC); International Development Association (IDA); Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA); and International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). The World Bank's activities are particularly focused on economically backward developing countries. These activities are in fields such as agriculture and rural development (e.g. irrigation, rural services), human development (e.g. education, health), infrastructure (e.g. roads, urban regeneration, electricity), governance (e.g. anti-corruption, legal institutions development) and environmental protection (e.g. pollution reduction, establishing and enforcing regulations). Each of these organizati ons has their own aims and objectives. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) aims to reduce poverty in middle-income and creditworthy poorer countries by promoting sustainable development through loans, guarantees, risk management products, and analytical and advisory services. The IBRD and IDA provide loans at preferential rates to member countries, as well as grants to the poorest countries for developmental activities. Most of the times loans or grants for specific projects that may result in improvement of policy changes. For instance, loans to improve coastal environmental management that may be linked to development of new environmental institutions at national and local levels and to implementation of new regulations to limit pollution. The main activities of the IFC and MIGA include investment in the private sector and capitalizing insurance respectively (Wikipedia, 2007a). The IBRD was established in 1944 as the original institution of the World Bank Group. It is structured like a cooperative that is owned and operated for the benefit of its'185 member countries (web.worldbank.org, 2007). IBRD raises most of its funds on the world's financial markets. In 1946 the Bank had an authorized capital of $10 bi11ion, worth about 20 times as much today. However, all through its development it has been singularly garnered more controversy and criticism than any other international financial or development institution. In 1993 the Bank's total callable capital was almost $166 billion, though of that only $10.53 was paid in (Rich, 1994). The income that IBRD has been generated from the time of its inception has allowed it to fund development activities and to ensure its financial strength. As a result of this it is enabled to borrow at low cost and offer clients good borrowing terms (web.worldbank.org, 2007). From mid 1946 to mid 1986 the World Bank lent a total o f $160 billion for 4,000 different projects in around 100 countries, and has even more increased in the last few decades. By any reckoning the Bank's resources are huge (Hardy, N.D.). Till date IBRD has not suffered any losses

Fuel Price Increase in US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fuel Price Increase in US - Essay Example The thrust at accomplishing set goals in pursuing the 'green world' philosophy and theory much based on the need to curtail the towering global climate upheavals has seen the emphasised shift in policy in various industry and agriculture fronts. The soaring fuel prices owing to the volatility of the oil prices have spurred government and energy as well as food industry stakeholders to consider alternative means of curtailing the predicament of escalating fuel prices. President George W. Bush has had the production of corn-based ethanol as part of the core of his energy policy. Hayashi Fumio (2007) notes, "This has brought in some merits on board. The resonating perspective is based on that the emphasis on corn based ethanol production has acute implications on the success of the attempts at throwing a holistic approach to the whole global 'green world' initiative". The scholar further notes that the emphasis of green solution even to the fuel predicament has thus put America society back in the lead in the efforts of making the world a better place. Despite the impact on the entirety of the national and international agriculture sectors the production of corn-based ethanol which has also been the part of the roo... Hayashi, Fumio (2008) notes that, '"This is a welcome policy reorientation given that this year alone over a million jobs were lost. The move will precipitate in the expansion of employment base for the American society". It is notable that the pressure from escalating fuel prices has necessitated the invention of feasible means of striking the balance between demand and consumption for fuel. Fig. 1 Ethanol Production Projections Source: national Agricultural Statistical Service [http://www.nass.usda.gov/Charts_and_Maps/Agricultural_Prices/pricecn.asp] Fig 2 Corn Price Trends Source: Shurson G.C. (2008) It is evident from the two direct-relationship graphs that the growth of the ethanol production industry has a direct impact on the price of corn. What is particularly notable from the statistics is that during the 2002-2005 periods when 4 billon gallons of corn-based ethanol were produced the price of corn was peaking from below $2 a bushel to about $3. Although the price took a lunge in the 2004-2006 phases the rise afterwards has been significant with corn price escalating from just about $2 a bushel to over $5. This is the period when corn-based ethanol production capacity was at an average over 5 billion gallons. Statistical interferences drawn from the trends and patterns illustrated on the graph show that holding everything equal, the production of corn-based ethanol will hit phenomenal figures of over 11 billion gallons by the end of the 2009 which may propel the price of corn way over $9 a bushel. "The growth of corn-based ethanol industry in tandem with demand in the US wil l lead to the expansion of the export GDP and thus help boost the strained US economy

Middle East Women Studying Abroad presents a potential Solution to Racism Essay Example for Free

Middle East Women Studying Abroad presents a potential Solution to Racism Essay Middle East Women Studying Abroad presents a potential Solution to RacismIntroductionMiddle East is one of the regions that are known to steer racism, gender inequality, and religious prejudice with low concerted efforts to minimize the occurrences. This has been a problem to both the domestic populations and foreign populations living in the region. The racism exists in both lower social and higher social class and across different races. Citizens and political leaders play a major part in propagating racial prejudice across different races and particularly on women (Shalhoub-Kevorkian, 2004). Leaders use their selfish motives to gain power and in the end steer prejudice within societies (Price, 2003).   Citizens have always trusted their leader and tend to follow their ill promises ending up in hatred and sometimes mistreatment and brutality to other races. Traditional methods by leaders to solve conflict in Middle East have led to inconclusive outcome and attitudes colored by strong emotions on populations (Saaty, Zoffer, 2012). Arabs and Islamic quest for a conspiracy theory, explain the lack of development and rise of dictatorial regimes in the Middle East. This is evidence by the lack of western hallmarks for society development thus faulting Arabs themselves. This is a representation of intellectual and cultural affliction independent of any external forces (Ismael, Measor, 2003). Middle East education system, religious platforms and leaders have shown no interest in ending the problem. The large group of victims of racial prejudice is females and children who experiences discriminations and denial to other basic human rights (Ruby, 2013). They are much hurt in cases of violence and are subjected to inhumane acts such as rape and murder. This shows there is need to find a solution to the problem and empower women through advocating their rights. The major contributor of racism has been linked by the high levels of illiteracy in the country (Golding, 2009). This hinders populations from knowing their rights and hence hard for them to fight and demand their rights through successive and peaceful negotiation forum with leaders and other stakeholders. People knowing their rights through education and other enlightening plat forms would achieve a solution to racism. Few women who have benefited from getting education abroad have been so vocal about bringing solution to racism in Middle East but their numbers and unsupportive illiterate women let them down. Illiteracy is one of the major sustenance of racism in Middle East (Golding, 2009). Thus, the problem ends propagating itself to worse levels. If such women could increase in number in the region, a solution to the eating racism problem would be found. This study will be very important to leader and especial women in leadership and those studying abroad. Through the study, they will realize their role in curbing prejudice through informed knowledge on human rights (Gordon, 2012). The government and leader will be important audience so that they can advocate for foreign education and put policies in place that would encourage women to study abroad. Education significance                      The solution of racism has always been linked to men and political leader in Middle East. However, they have continuously failed in addressing the matter comprehensively and bringing a long lasting solution. Few enlightened women who by luck had a chance to go and study abroad seem to understand their rights and the need of a lasting solution in Middle East. Studying abroad equip women with necessary human rights knowledge necessary to address the Middle East problem (Gordon, 2012). The research that have been done tend to address solution based on traditional methods such as diplomacy and face-to-face and leaders intervention (Saaty, Zoffer, 2012). The resolution forums never advocates for the rights of citizens but only advocated for need of reconciliation and unity. This research will be a revelation to leaders, women and government in bringing a solution to Middle East racism. Western countries seem also to have firm human rights activist who w omen studying abroad can emulate. This will help them understand their human rights will then they can transfer to the wide population (Steinberg, 2012; Ruby, 2013). A higher number of men have studied abroad from Middle East but they have done very little on the issue. Thus, this study will be very significant to all its audience in empowering women to study abroad thus awareness of human rights and solution to Middle East bringing a new dawn to the populations. Literature Review                      Racism is one of the major problems in Middle East that causes conflicts and brutality within populations. Middle East has Arabs and Muslim religious and ethnic group. In this region, non-Arabs and non-Muslims people are faced with rejection and disapproval (Fluehr-Lobban, 2005). The region also has more 20 diverse ethnic groups. The discussion on the religious and ethnic groups in the area is a taboo in the society. The components that may help to discuss potential solution to racism by women include: According to Saaty, and Zoffer, (2012) dispute resolution in middle East has been on the routine cause where leaders (males), use traditional approaches such as face to face to engager to conflicting party. These means have not been fruitful at all and so, leadership should adopt more practical dispute resolutions approaches in Middle East, which focus on the rights of the people in their social, humanitarian, economic, geographic, and historical worth. This way will help minimize conflicts and racism. Skilled people who are aware of their rights would tend to concentrate on nation building rather than their differences. Medovoi, (2012) argues that religion has been of the group that has exemplified on racism dynamics. The author regards religion as one of the group that has supplemented the racial dynamics. From the perspective that most religions groups are headed my men, it is an obvious conclusion that men and other readers have failed to use their potential leadership and influential position to bring solution to the problem of racism in Middle East. This calls for a change in the ways of thinking and culture of Middle East to trust male dominated leadership in Middle East. Steinberg, (2012) view the cause of racism and other violence against human rights to originate from political selfish welfare. He refers the persistence conflicts between Arabs and Israel as a form of political involvement. The leadership rather than solving the problem on their citizens and populations have continued to instigate hatred among the citizens. It is worth noting that male characters dominate the leadership here. Therefore, the failure to resolve conflicts and racism issues heavily fall on them. Semati, (2010) argues that Islamic domination in the region is one of the key factors that have led to slow resolution of the problems differential racism in Middle East. He argues that Islamophobia is an ideological response, which conflates politics, societies, histories and cultures of the Middle East to a negative and unified attitude on Islam. This has led to incompatibility with other races thus propagating the racial prejudice. This can also be attributed to the failure of male leadership in Islamic religion. References Baker, J. (2013). Just Kids? Peer Racism in a Predominantly White City. Refuge, 29(1), 75-85. Chronology. (2011). Middle East Journal, 65(1), 103-131. Fluehr-Lobban, C. (2006). Why Muslims Rebel: Repression and Resistance in the Islamic World. Arab Studies Quarterly, 28(2), 72-74. Golding, A. S. (2009).  Multiculturism, America, and the Middle East. Bloomington, IN: Authorhouse. Hasso, F. S. (2005). Problems and Promise in Middle East and North Africa Gender Research. Feminist Studies, 31(3), 653-678. Ismael, T. Y., Measor, J. (2003). Racism and the North American Media Following 11 September: The Canadian Setting. Arab Studies Quarterly, 25(1/2), 101-136. Medovoi, L. (2012). Dogma-Line Racism. Social Text, 30(2_111), 43-74. Price, R. (2003).  Fast facts on the Middle East conflict. Eugene: Harvest House Pub Rodenborg, N. A. (2013). Aversive Racism and Intergroup Contact Theories: Cultural Competence in a Segregated World. Journal of Social Work Education, 49(4), 564-579. Semati, M. (2010). Islamophobia, Culture and Race in the Age of Empire. Cultural Studies, 24(2), 256-275. Shalhoub-Kevorkian, N. (2004). Racism, Militarisation and Policing: Police Reactions to Violence against Palestinian Women in Israel. Social Identities, 10(2), 171-193. Treacher, A. (2007). Circulating Emotions, Beliefs and Fantasies: The Middle East and the West. Psychodynamic Practice, 13(4), 345-360. Gordon, J. (2012). Human Right Education?. Journal of Law, Medicine Ethics, 41(4), 754-767. Ruby, T. (2013). The Question 0f Muslim Womens Rights And The Ontario Shariah Tribunals. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 34(2), 134-154. Steinberg, G. M. (2012). From Durban to the Goldstone Report: The Centrality Of Human Rights Ngos In The Political Dimension Of The Arab–Israeli Conflict. Israel Affairs, 18(3), 372-388 Steinberg, G. M. (2012). International Ngos, the Arab Upheaval, and Human Rights: Examining NGO Resource Allocation. Journal of International Human Rights, 11(1), 124-149. Boothe, I., Smithey, L. A. (2007). Privilege, Empowerment, and Nonviolent Intervention. Peace Change, 32(1), 39-61. Cakir, S., Yerin Guneri, O. (2011). Exploring the Factors Contributing To Empowerment of Turkish Migrant Women in the UK. International Journal of Psychology, 46(3), 223-233. Kim, L. M. (2001). I Was [So] Busy Fighting Racism That I Didnt Even Know I Was Being Oppressed As A Woman!: Challenges, Changes, and Empowerment In Teaching About Women Of Color. Nwsa Journal, 13(2), 98. Reardon, K. M. (1998). Combating Racism through Planning Education: Lessons from the East St. Louis Action Research Project. Planning Practice Research, 13(4), 421-432.Rubin, J. (2008). From Patriarchy to Empowerment. Womens Participation, Movements, and Rights in The Middle East, North Africa, And South Asia. Middle East Quarterly, 15(3), 84-85. Salime, Z. (2010). Securing The Market, Pacifying Civil Society, Empowering Women: The Middle East Partnership Initiative Securing the Market, Pacifying Civil Society, Empowering Women: The Middle East Partnership Initiative. Sociological Forum, 25(4), 725-745. Zuhur, S. (2003). Women and Empowerment in the Arab World. Arab Studies Quarterly, 25(4), 17-38. Burtonwood, N. (1990). Inset and Education for Multicultural Society: A Review Of The Literature. British Educational Research Journal, 16(4), 321.Osler, A. (2002). Education For Citizenship: Mainstreaming The Fight Against Racism?. European Journal of Education, 37(2), 143.Pettijohn Ii, T. S. (2008). Reducing Racism, Sexism, and Homophobia in College Students By Completing A Psychology Of Prejudice Course. College Student Journal, 42(2), 459-468. Short, G. (1996). Anti-Racist Education, Multiculturalism, and the New Racism. Educational Review, 48(1), 65. Source document

Charles Dickens’s David Copperfield Essay -- GCSE English Literature Co

Charles Dickens’s David Copperfield David Copperfield was Charles Dickens’s eighth novel, and has been said to be Charles Dickens favorite novel. In the Charles Dickens edition of the novel Dickens states, â€Å"It will be easily believed that I am a fond parent to every child of my fancy, and that no one can ever love that family as dearly as I love them. But, like many fond parents, I have in my heart of hearts a favorite child. And his name is David Copperfield†(Valsmis 1). Many of the events of the novel, David Copperfield, have been compared to Charles Dickens own life; therefore many believe the novel to be somewhat autobiographical. John Forster one of Charles Dickens close friends and the author of Dickens biography wrote, â€Å"too much had been assumed†¦of the full identity of Dickens with his hero; but certainly a good deal of Dickens’s character and experience went into the book†(Unknown 2). Forster’s remark deals mainly with some of the publicâ€⠄¢s belief that the entire story of David Copperfield was autobiographical. Charles Dickens began work on David Copperfield after John Forster questioned him about his childhood. E. D. H. Johnson's, Charles Dickens: An Introduction to His Novels, discussed a conversation that John Forster overheard between Charles Dickens’s father and a man, in which; the man claimed that he remembered a young Dickens working in his factory (Johnson 1). Johnson stated, â€Å"Forster's curiosity over this chance discovery moved Dickens to write the fragment of an autobiography which he subsequently entrusted to his friend when he decided to incorporate the substance of his recollections almost verbatim in the Murdstone and Grinby episode of David Copperfield†(Johnson 1). D... ...vid Copperfield. http://www.eiu.edu/~multilit/engl253-01s02/dickens/publicationrecep.htm Other Sites interesting Sources Hornback, Bert. David Copperfield in Noah's Architecture: A Study of Dickens' Mythology. Athens, OH: Ohio State P, 1972: 63-82. Needham. Gwendolyn B. The Undisciplined Heart of David Copperfield in Nineteenth-Century Fiction 9 (1954): 81-107. [Reprinted in David Copperfield,Norton Critical Edition, Ed. Jerome H. Buckley, New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1990: 794-806.] Nussbaum, Martha C. "Steerforth's Arm: Love and the Moral Point of View" from Love's Knowledge: Essays on Philosophy and Literature (New York: Oxford UP, 1990: 335-363).<o:p></o:p> Stewart, Garrett. "Dickens and Language," in Cambridge Companion to Charles Dickens, Ed. John O. Jordan, New York: Cambridge UP, 2001: 136-151.

How Does Culture Affect Meaning and Communication Essay

Nowadays we live in what is considered a â€Å"global village†, over time we have collectively worked towards this end. The need and desire to create a closer global community is not only seen as a technological advantage but an economic benefit. The world as we know it gets smaller every day, thanks to a new generation of social media applications such as facebook or twitter, which links vast communities together; communities and cultures are no longer cut off or remote. Take facebook for example, it has over 1 billion users, if it were a country it would be the third largest by population. (www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2013/012313.htm) Whether you live and work in remote Antarctica or bustling Hong Kong, technology and the studies of inter-culture communication ensures that people, governments and organizations can work effectively together in a harmonious and beneficial way. Naturally, this is an ideal situation, but as experience tells us, nothing is ever as simple. This essay explores how cultural differences effect meaning and communication. In doing so it will look at the definition of culture, what it is, and how it affects meaning. Furthermore, it will look at the acclaimed Dutch researcher, Geert Hofstede’s four dimensions of corporate culture as a framework to define and categorize cultural differences. Finally, it will raise potential problems raised in the field of inter-cultural communications and provide suggestions to overcome them. What is culture? Currently there are over â€Å"7 billion human inhabitants living on this planet. Each of these earth dwellers comes from a specific culture. (geography.about.com/od/obtainpopulationdata/a/worldpopulation.htm) As the world becomes smaller, not physically, but by the use of new media and technology, as they traverse earth looking for new or better opportunities, so must they face the modern conundrum of understanding firstly, what is culture, and secondly, how the differences between cultures effect meaning and communications. Without an understanding of different cultures, the potential for misunderstanding is high, with the ever-present possibility of a breakdown in relationships and opportunities. (Dostine, 2008, pg 58) text book suggests that all humans can be broadly defined by our culture. In essence, we are all born into a culture that over time has been passed down from previous generations, bestowing a rich history, significant culture defining traits such as its religion, its values and ethics, its ceremonies, rites and rituals, languages, customs, laws and business practices. Moreover, verbal and non-verbal communications practices that differ from one culture to the next. Therefore, suffice to say that the more we know about each other’s cultures the more effective our communication and co-habitation of the planet will be. How does cultural effect meaning? At the best of times, communication between individuals can be somewhat challenging. Add to that mix, communicating with people from another cultures and suddenly, the propensity for misunderstanding and in some cases offence can very easily take place as a result of the differences between the cultural backgrounds, understanding and meaning between the sender and receiver can be in stark contrast. This can be due to the increase in variables in the communication mix, therefore making global interaction more complex. Furthermore, people’s perception or way of thinking, hearing or seeing can vary quite extensively from one culture to the next. It could be strongly argued that it would be highly advantageous for both parties to be aware of the differences and therefore the potential for problems that arise from inter-cultural communication. Nowadays, many multi-national organizations, governments and educators have training and education programs in place. They see the importance in creating a clear, concise and respectful flow of communications between cultures. An example of this could be the department of foreign affairs and trade (DFAT) in Canberra. One of its main functions is to liaise internally and externally to better position itself to and for greater opportunity. It would be highly likely that the department has educated its employees in the science of how to deal effectively with other cultures (governments, organizations, businesses). One of DFATs main objectives is to â€Å"work with other government agencies to ensure that Australia’s pursuit of its global, regional and bilateral interests is coordinated effectively†. (dfat.gov.au/dept/what-we-do.html) In the field of organizational cultural studies, a Dutch researcher known as Geert Hofstede went on to publish his highly regarded findings. These findings have become a highly influential and acceptable way in which modern organizations can asses the difference between national culture and organizational culture. Hostede, seen as a pioneer in area of corporate culture, created a framework in which to asses national cultural groups and how they may affect or influence behaviors within an organization. Hofstede’s research in the 1980s, included the survey and analysis of hundreds of thousands of employees across fifty countries, to further increase the validity of his findings he followed up several years later by re-surveying these workers. In his work Hofstede asserted that the values that differentiated counties from each other fell into four dissimilar categories or clusters. Through the process of his study in corporate culture, Hofstede’s created a framework whereby he classified culture into four different dimensions. These dimensions looked at four anthropological problem areas that societies tend to handle differently to one another. Such as, ways in which they cope with inequality, uncertainty, the relationship between the individual and their primary group and implication of the persons sex. Born from this was Hofsted’s four dimensions of national culture. They become knows as Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism versus Collectivism, and Masculinity versus Femininity. (www.geerthofstede.nl/dimensions-of-national-cultures) In discussing the Four Dimensions of Culture, Hofstede claims that: Power Distance Power distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above. It suggests that a society’s level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that â€Å"all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others†. Uncertainty Avoidance Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth: â€Å"there can only be one Truth and we have it†. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phleg matic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions. Individualism Individualism on the one side versus its opposite, collectivism is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side, we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after her/himself and her/his immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) that continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The word collectivism in this sense has no political meaning: it refers to the group, not to the state. Again, the issue addressed by this dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding all societies in the world. Masculinity Masculinity versus its opposite, femininity refers to the distribution of emotional roles between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. The IBM studies revealed that (a) women’s values differ less among societies than men’s values; (b) men’s values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women’s values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women’s values on the other. The assertive pole has been called masculine and the modest, caring pole feminine. The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are more assertive and more competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men’s values and women’s values. (www.geerthofstede.nl/dimensions-of-national-cultures) Whilst Hofsted’s four dimensions are highly regarded, further research has highlighted other areas that effect intercultural communication and understanding. These include context, language and non-verbal communications. Firstly, it is almost impossible to investigate research into the cross-cultural issues without making mention of Edward Hall’s research in the area; he asserted that cultures are defined by context. (Hansen & Lee, pg,30) A person’s behavior can be affected by its cultural context. (Dostine, 2008) From here, he broke context down into low context cultures; these prefer direct verbal interaction with minimal regard to context. Examples include Australia, USA, Germany, Switzerland, and Scandinavian cultures.

Kaymito Leaves as Antibacterial Mouthwash

KAYMITO LEAVES AS ANTIBACTERIAL MOUTHWASH I- INTRODUCTION An effective mouthwash is one that does not only make the breath fresh but also serves as an antibacterial. It should not simply mask the effective mouth odor caused by excessive activity of bacteria inhabiting the mouth. There is a need to prevent the increase in the population of such. A mouthwash is a solution in addition to regular oral hygiene method such as brushing. Alternative mouth gargles can be prepared from locally available plants such as herbs and fruit bearing ones. Certain plant parts may have active ingredients that have antimicrobial activity.An example is the peppermint that contains essential oils found to be efficient in neutralizing mouth conditions and in freshening breath. This study Aims to answer following questions: †¢ Is Kaymito leaves decoction can be effective mouthwash? †¢ Is the peppermint that contains essential oils can be effective in neutralizing mouth conditions and in freshening breath? In this study the people will benefit because they can use it in the prevention of dental diseases and maintenance of the oral health and it can be used for preventing gums and oral infections.This study only tested the feasibility of using decoction prepared from kaymito leaves as mouthwash II- REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Review of Literature Kaymito (chrisophyllum cainito) is a common angiosperm in tropical countries. This fruit-bearing tree has leathery oblong leaves that are dark green and glossy on the upper surface and golden brown on the underside, its fleshy fruits are among the favorites. To treat swollen gums, De Guzman-Ladion (1995) suggests to a gargle concoction from

All About Caesar essays

All About Caesar essays Julius Caesar was born on July 13, 100 BC, in Rome. Born in one of the well known and oldest families of Rome, the history of his family can be traced back to Aeneas, the mortal son of goddess Venus. Julius Caesar was named after Julius, the son of Aeneas. Son of rich parents, his upbringing was modest. Julius Caesar, unlike other boys of his time, knew no luxury like jewels, expensive clothing and exotic food. His education was also different from that of other boys of his time. Generally Roman boys were tutored by Greek slaves bought by their parents. However, Caesars father, Gaius Caesar and mother Aurelia wanted Caesar to be tutored by a freeman. Gnipho, a gentle scholar was appointed as his tutor. He was a Gaul. From him Caesar learnt Latin, Greek, history, literature and mathematics. He also learned the language and ways of the people of Gaul. The young Gaul Caesar did not know that he would one day conquer and make it a part of the great Roman empire. Caesar spent his days happily, studying and playing with his friend, Marcus Cicero. Three important events occurred in his life. When he was 14, his uncle, Marius appointed Caesar as priest of Jupiter and member of the Sacred College. Caesar was very happy but his joy was short lived. His uncle died suddenly and two years later Caesar lost his father. After his fathers death, Caesar found a companion in his mother Aurelia. She was a woman of great wisdom and strong character. She devoted herself to the upbringing and betterment of her child and watched his career grow with pride. Suddenly the peace was shattered and the rule of the Popular Party came to an end. Sulla and 40,000 troops landed at Brindisi located at the heel of the Italian boot on the Adriatic coast to march into Rome. He was determined to take revenge against the people and Popular Party for overthrowing his government. Sulla was victorious and entered Rome with his army, where he was proclai...

Christmas Tree Worm Facts

Christmas Tree Worm Facts The Christmas Tree Worm is a colorful marine worm with beautiful, spiraling plumes that resemble a fir tree. These animals can be a variety of colors, including  red, orange, yellow, blue and white. The Christmas tree shape shown in the image is the animals radioles, which can be up to about 1 1/2 inches in diameter. Each worm has two of these plumes, which are used for feeding and respiration. The rest of the worms body is in a tube in the coral, which is formed after the larval worm settles on the coral and then the coral grows around the worm.The worms  legs (parapodia) and bristles (chatae) protected within the tube are about twice as large as the portion of the worm visible above the coral.   If it worm feels threatened, it can withdraw into its tube to protect itself. Classification: Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: AnnelidaClass: PolychaetaSubclass: CanalipalpataOrder: SabellidaFamily: SerpulidaeGenus: Spirobranchus Habitat of the Christmas Tree Worm The Christmas tree worm lives on tropical coral reefs throughout the world, in relatively shallow waters less than 100 feet deep. They seem to prefer certain coral species.   The tubes that Christmas tree worms live in can be up to about 8 inches long and are constructed of calcium carbonate.The worm produces the tube by excreting calcium carbonate that it obtains from ingesting sand grains and other particles that contain calcium. The tube may be much longer than the  worm, which is thought to be an adaptation that allows the worm to withdraw fully into its tube when it needs protection. When the worm withdraws into the tube, it can seal it tight using a trapdoor-like structure called an operculum. This operculum is equipped with spines to fend off predators. Feeding The Christmas tree worm feeds by trapping plankton and other small particles on their plumes. Cilia then pass the food to the worms mouth. Reproduction There are male and female Christmas tree worms. They reproduce by sending eggs and sperm into the water. These gametes are created within the worms abdominal segments. Fertilized eggs develop into larvae that live as plankton for nine to 12 days and then settle on coral, where they produce a mucus tube that develops into a calcareous tube. These worms are thought to be capable of living over 40 years. Conservation Christmas tree worm populations are thought to be stable. While they arent harvested for food, they are popular with divers and underwater photographers and may be harvested for the aquarium trade. Potential threats to the worms include habitat loss, climate change and ocean acidification, which could affect their ability to build their calcareous tubes. The presence or absence of a healthy Christmas tree worm population can also indicate the health of the coral reef.   Sources De Martini, C. 2011. : Christmas Tree WormSpirobranchus sp.. Great Barrier Reef Invertebrates. University of Queensland. Accessed November 29, 2015Frazer, J. 2012. The Overlooked Joy of the Christmas Tree Worm. Scientific American. Accessed November 28, 2015.Hunte, W., Marsden, J.R. and B.E. Conlin. 1990. Habitat selection in the tropical polychaete Spirobranchus giganteus. Marine Biology 104:101-107.Kurpriyanova, E. 2015. Exploring the Diversity of Christmas Treet Worms in Indo-Pacific Coral Reefs. Australian Museum. Accessed November 28, 2015.Nishi, E. and M. Nishihira. 1996. Age-estimation of the Christmas tree worm Spirobranchus giganteus (Polychaeta, Serpulidae) living buried in the coral skeleton from the coral-growth band of the host coral. Fisheries Science 62(3):400-403.NOAA National Ocean Service. What Are Christmas Tree Worms?NOAA Encyclopedia of the Sanctuaries. Christmas Tree Worm.SeaLifeBase. (Pallas, 1766): Christmas Tree WormSpirobranchus giganteus. Accessed November 29, 2015. University of Queensland.  Great Barrier Reef Invertebrates: Spirobranchus giganteus.

Framework for the Development of Transboundary Offshore Oil and Gas Essay

Framework for the Development of Transboundary Offshore Oil and Gas Resources in Neighbouring States - Essay Example The paper tells that discoveries of deposits of gas and oil that exist on the boundary between two sovereign states present a complex challenge that must be approached with caution. Both sides have different interests and consequently decisions must be made that resolve conflicts and balance the competing interests of the different parties. Transboundary deposits of gas and oil do not conform to the standard laws in relation to political boundaries or property lines. This is because the resource can be exploited from one side of the boundary without the line needing to be crossed. There are several international conventions and guidelines that focus on how to resolve such disputes, however, not all countries have ratified to these, and they have little to no legal power. One important aspect of the development of offshore oil and gas resources is the economic perspective. These resources represent significant means for economic development for the countries in which they are present. However, this is not the only consideration. Other relevant factors are the social, political and environmental factors . These differ between states and two states attempting to reach an agreement over a transboundary resource may differ in how their priorities which may affect the types of technology they are prepared to use or the processes that they want to be involved in. The ideal situation for a transboundary deposit is for the states whose boundary the deposit is on to work collectively. However, the situation becomes more complex as each of the states have different laws, principals and procedures by which they work with the various parts of the oil and gas cycle, such as the discovery of the deposit, exploitation, transportation and eventual decommissioning5. This report aims to examine the current framework for how transboundary offshore oil and gas resources are managed, what the benefits and limitations are, and what appears likely for the future. Legislation Legislati on concerning transboundary offshore resources is not simple, as there is no international legal system that has the authority to create legislation that is legally binding. International law arises from international custom, conventions and general law that is recognized by civilised nations6. However, some countries do not recognise all international law. One important aspect of any state is territory and boundaries. Usually, the states boundaries are well mapped and represent a specific point, which marks the difference between one state and another. Within its boundaries, a state has sovereignty and has the power to exploit any and all natural resources that are present. Oceanic boundaries are more complex. Prior to the 1940s, territorial see was viewed as three miles from the coast of the state and this was not accepted in all cases. In 1945, President Truman declared that the natural resources under the high seas that neighboured the United States were part of its territory an d thus under its control. He did however state that if the continental shelf extended to another state, then ‘equitable principles’ would be used to determine who had the right to the resources7. The 1958 Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf defined the continental shelf as being the deep-sea areas that were next to the coast of a territory but were not part of the territorial sea. The coastal state has the right to exploration of the continental shelf and exploitation of any natural resources that are present. In the case of a shelf that is next to two or more costal states, the Convention states that the boundary should be decided by agreement, and if none is made, then the boundary will be the median line between the territories. An important piece of legislation concerning the rights of states and the sea in general is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)8. This article is a comprehensive document with 320 articles, involved more than

'civilization and its discontent, Sigmund Freud Essay

'civilization and its discontent, Sigmund Freud - Essay Example Freud was controversial and influential and in â€Å"civilization and its discontent†, Freud explicitly argues that humankind is violent and cites different terrible instances that suggest part of humankind is violent and he refers to it as â€Å"the inclination toward aggression†. Freud suggests that humans were never meant to be happy because what is often referred to as happiness comes from satisfaction of needs, which are currently complex therefore from this nature is possible as episodes. However, in â€Å"Civilization and its Discontents† Freud emphasized the social role of superego in preserving social order by preventing and turning individual aggression against the society which result in increased discontent with civilization. Though Freud has less to say regarding the common defense against guilt; he manages to show that instead of being victims of sadistic superego people become its agent in the name of ideals, laws and ethics. According to Freud (p. 66), conscience is one of the three functions of superego; however, Thrasymachus, the sophist, promotes doing away with justice as well as all moral standards when he breaks into the discussion angrily claiming to offer better definition of justice. Thrasymachus considers justice to be merely an advantage for the strong even though he considers his definition to be not the real definition of justice because it is de-legitimization of justice since he believes that it is not rewarding to be just. Thrasymachus believes that just behavior works for the benefit of other individuals and not the individual who behaves justly; therefore, he considers justice to be the unnatural restraint on people’s desire to have more. Hence, to Thrasymachus justice is a principle forced on people and does not benefit them to adhere to it so the rational thing is to ignore it entirely. Nevertheless, this view of Thrasymachus promotes injustice as a virtue because the perception of life from this vi ew is that life is a continuous competition for more money, power among others and individuals who possess much in the struggle have the greatest virtue. As the discussion progresses, its burden shifts from the challenge of defining justice to defining justice in a way that is proven and worthwhile. In â€Å"The Republic† Socrates tackles the challenge of describing justice and injustice throughout the discussion (Lear 186). Nevertheless, Thrasymachus manages to show that justice is never universally presumed to be valuable because there are individuals who this it better to look out for their interests instead of following rules. Thrasymachus claim points down to general sophistic moral concept that norms and mores considered just are mere conventions that hinder individuals who adhere to them while benefitting those who flout them. Thrasymachus does not only make assertions that norms of justice are conventions but also claims that the norms are conventions promoted by rule rs for their interests and keeping the subjects in oppression. In countering Thrasymachus claim, Socrates has various arguments against Thrasymachus claim the first argument involves making Thrasymachus admit that he advanced injustice as a virtue where life is a competition. Socrates also launches another long and complex chain of reasoning that results in him concluding that injustice can never be a virtue since it remains contrary to the virtue of wisdom. Injustice goes against wisdom since wise men like men skilled in some art do not seek to thrash out those that possess similar skills in the same art; as well, mathematicians are never in constant competition with each other. Socrates moves to another argument from the understanding that justice involves adherence to certain rules that enable similar